An asymptotic formula for the density of states of the polyharmonic periodic operator (−δ)^{$l$}+$V$in$R$^{$n$},$n$≥2,$l$>1/2 is obtained. Special consideration is given to the case of the Schrödinger equation$n$=3,$l$=1,$V$being a periodic potential, where the second term of the asymptotic is found.

We derive a gradient estimate for positive functions, in particular for positive solutions to the heat equation, on finite or locally finite graphs. Unlike the well known Li-Yau estimate, which is based on the maximum principle, our estimate follows from the graph structure of the gradient form and the Laplacian operator. Though our assumption on graphs is slightly stronger than that of Bauer et al. (J Differ Geom 99:359–405, 2015), our estimate can be easily applied to nonlinear differential equations, as well as differential inequalities. As applications, we estimate the greatest lower bound of Cheng’s eigenvalue and an upper bound of the minimal heat kernel, which is recently studied by Bauer et al. (Preprint, 2015) by the Li-Yau estimate. Moreover, generalizing an earlier result of Lin and Yau (Math Res Lett 17:343–356, 2010), we derive a lower bound of nonzero eigenvalues by our gradient estimate.

We investigate the angular distribution of Ly$\alpha$ photons transferring in or emergent from an optically thick medium. Since the evolutions of specific intensity $I$ in the frequency space and the angular space are coupled with each other, we first develop the WENO numerical solver in order to find the time-dependent solutions of the integro-differential equation of $I$ in frequency and angular space simultaneously. We first show that the solutions with the Eddington approximation, which assume $I$ to be linearly dependent on the angular variable $\mu$, yield similar frequency profiles of the photon flux as that without the Eddington approximation. However, the solutions of the $\mu$ distribution evolution are significantly different from that given by Eddington approximation. First, the angular distribution of $I$ are found to be substantially dependent on the frequency of photons. For photons with the resonant frequency $\nu_0$, $I$ contains only a linear term of $\mu$. For photons with frequency at the double peaks of the flux, the $\mu$-distribution is highly anisotropic, in which most photons are in the direction of radial forward. Moreover, either at $\nu_0$ or at the double peaks, the $\mu$ distributions actually are independent of the initial $\mu$ distribution of photons of the source. This is because the photons with frequency either of $\nu_0$ or of the double peaks undergo the process of forgetting their initial conditions due to the resonant scattering. We also show that the optically thick medium is a collimator of photons at the double peaks. Photons from the double peaks form a forward beam with very small spread angle.

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We give a sharp upper estimate for the response of boundary current-voltage measurements to perturbations of the admittivity in a body that are localized in space and frequency. We calculate the differential of the measurement mapping and study the$Gabor symbol$of this operator.